Screening of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among Adolescent Victims of The Garut Flash Flood in 2016
Abstract
The flash flood that occurred in the Garut Regency three years ago brought about devastating effects, one of which was the psychological impact in adolescents, namely PTSD. This study aims at detecting the presence of PTSD in adolescent victims of the flash flood that occurred in Garut, Indonesia three years ago. PTSD screening was conducted using the PTSD Checklist (PCL) questionnaire for 102 teenagers of the State Junior High-School (SMPN) 3 Tarogong Kidul who were victims of the flood and selected using a purposive sampling technique. This study used a quantitative descriptive method with cross-sectional approach. The results showed that three years after the Garut flash flood, a total of 80% of adolescent victims did not experience PTSD and 20 (20%) of the adolescents were identified having PTSD. The highest arising symptom responses were re-experiencing (90%) and hyperarousal (80%), which involve feeling intruded by memories of disasters and increased alertness. It is expected that nurses and experts can perform early and continuous screening for PTSD following a traumatic event, both in adolescents and other age groups to prevent another more severe impact.
References
American Psychological Association [APA]. (2008). Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Retrieved March 2, 2019, from https://www.apa.org
APA. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th-Rev ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
APA. (2002). Developing Adolescents: A Reference for Professionals. Educational Psychologist, 8(2), 36–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461527109529039
Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies [ABCT]. (2017). Cognitive Behavioral Therapy-Effective Child Therapy. Retrieved June 30, 2019, from https://effectivechildtherapy.org/therapies/cognitive-behavioral-therapy/
Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana [BNPB]. (2016). Risiko Bencana Indonesia (Disasters Risk of Indonesia). Direktorat Pengurangan Resiko Bencana Deputi Bidang Pencegahan dan Kesiapansiagaan. Retrieved from http://inarisk.bnpb.go.id/pdf/Buku RBI_Final_low.pdf
Blanchard, E. B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T. C., & Forneris, C. A. (1996). Psychometric Properties of The PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(8), 669–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(96)00033-2
BNPB. (2008). Pedoman Penyusunan Rencana Penanggulangan Bencana.
BNPB. (2017). Buku Saku Tanggap Tangkas Tangguh Menghadapi Bencana.
BNPB. (2018). Data Informasi Bencana Indonesia [DIBI]. Retrieved February 2, 2019, from http://dibi.bnpb.go.id/
Bolton, D., O’Ryan, D., Udwin, O., Boyle, S., & Yule, W. (2000). The Long-term Psychological Effects of a Disaster Experienced in Adolescence: II: General Psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(4), S0021963099005569. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021963099005569
Boyraz, G., Horne, S. G., Owens, A. C., & Armstrong, A. P. (2013). Academic Achievement and College Persistence of African American Students with Trauma Exposure. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(4), 582–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033672
BPBD Kabupaten Garut. (2016). Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah Kabupaten Garut.
Bulut, S. (2013). Prediction of Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms via Comorbid Disorders and other Social and School Problems in Earthquake Exposed Turkish Adolescents. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 45(January 2013), 47–61. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/rlps/v45n1/v45n1a04.pdf
Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health [CPMH]. (2017). Australian Guidelines for the Treatment of Acute Stress Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Specific. Phoenix Australia, 1–6. Retrieved from www.phoenixaustralia.org
Connor KM, Davidson, J., & Lee, L. (2003). Spirituality, Resilience, and Anger in Survivors of Violent Trauma: A Community Survey. Journal Trauma Stress, 16, 487–494.
Departemen Kesehatan RI. (2007). Pedoman Teknis Penanggulangan Krisis Kesehatan Akibat Bencana. Jakarta: Kementerian Kesehatan RI. Retrieved from http://www.depkes.go.id/resources/download/penanganan-krisis/buku_pedoman_teknis_pkk_ab.pdf
Dinkes Kabupaten Garut. (2016). Dinas Kesehatan Kabupaten Garut.
Erwina, I. (2010). Pengaruh Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Terhadap Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Pada Penduduk Pasca Gempa Di Kelurahan Air Tawar Barat Kecamatan Padang Utara Propinsi Sumatera Barat. Retrieved from http://lib.ui.ac.id/file?file=digital/137225-T Ira Erwina.pdf
Feo, P., Di Gioia, S., Carloni, E., Vitiello, B., Tozzi, A. E., & Vicari, S. (2014). Prevalence of Psychiatric Symptoms in Children and Adolescents One Year After the 2009 L’Aquila Earthquake. BMC Psychiatry, 14(1), 270. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-014-0270-3
Ford, J. (2016). Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Children and Adolescents. In Trauma Psychology: American Psychological Association. Division 56-American Psychological Association.
Furr, J. M., Comer, J. S., Edmunds, J. M., & Kendall, P. C. (2010). Disasters and Youth: A Meta-Analytic Examination of Posttraumatic Stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(6), 765–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021482
Heir, T., Piatigorsky, A., & Weisæth, L. (2010). Posttraumatic stress symptom clusters associations with psychopathology and functional impairment. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(8), 936–940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.06.020
Higa-McMillan, C. K., Francis, S. E., Rith-Najarian, L., & Chorpita, B. F. (2016). Evidence Base Update: 50 Years of Research on Treatment for Child and Adolescent Anxiety. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 45(2), 91–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1046177
Hurlock, E. B. (2004). Psikologi Perkembangan Suatu Pendekatan Sepanjang Rentang Kehidupan (Edisi ke 5). Jakarta: Erlangga.
International Council of Nurses [ICN]. (2009). ICN Framework of Disaster Nursing Competencies. World Health Organization and International Council of Nurses. Retrieved from http://www.wpro.who.int/hrh/documents/icn_framework.pdf
Iwadare, Y., Usami, M., Suzuki, Y., Ushijima, H., Tanaka, T., Watanabe, K., … Saito, K. (2014). Posttraumatic Symptoms in Elementary and Junior High School Children after the 2011 Japan Earthquake and Tsunami: Symptom Severity and Recovery Vary by Age and Sex. The Journal of Pediatrics, 164(4), 917–921.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.11.061
Jackowski, A. P., de Araújo, C. M., de Lacerda, A. L. T., de Jesus Mari, J., & Kaufman, J. (2009). Neurostructural Imaging Findings in Children with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Brief Review. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 63(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1819.2008.01906.x
Kalsum, U. (2014). Hubungan Dukungan Sosial dan Trait Kecemasan dengan Trauma pada Korban Perdagangan Manusia. Jurnal Sains Dan Praktik Psikologi, 2(3), 243–255. Retrieved from http://ejournal.umm.ac.id/index.php/jspp/article/view/2888
Kementerian Kesehatan RI. (2016). Tinjauan Penanggulangan Krisis Kesehatan. Pusat Krisis Kesehatan. Retrieved from https://www.pusatkrisis.kemkes.go.id
Kementerian Kesehatan RI. (2017). Data dan Informasi Profil Kesehatan 2017. Profil Kesehatan Indonesia. Retrieved from http://www.depkes.go.id/Resources/Download/Pusdatin/Lain-Lain//Datadaninformasikesehatanindonesia2016-Smallersize-Web.Pdf
Larsen, M. C., VÁzquez Conde, M. T., & Clark, R. A. (2001). Landslide Hazards Associated With Flash-Floods, with Examples from The December 1999 Disaster in Venezuela. In Coping With Flash Floods (pp. 259–275). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0918-8_25
Lenroot, R. K., & Giedd, J. N. (2006). Brain Development in Children and Adolescents: Insights From Anatomical Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(6), 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.001
Levers, L. L. (2012). Trauma Counseling Theories and Interventions (1st ed.). New York: Springer Publishing Company, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.springerpub.com/media/samplechapters/9780826106834/9780826106834_chapter.pdf
Ma, X., Liu, X., Hu, X., Qiu, C., Wang, Y., Huang, Y., Li, T. (2011). Risk Indicators for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Adolescents Exposed to the 5 . 12 Wenchuan Earthquake in China. Psychiatry Research, 189(3), 385–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.12.016
Maeda, M., Kato, H., & Maruoka, T. (2009). Adolescent Vulnerability to PTSD and Effects of Community-Based Intervention: Longitudinal Study Among Adolescent Survivors of the Ehime Maru Sea Accident. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 63(6), 747–753. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1819.2009.02031.x
Mayo Clinic. (2010). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Retrieved January 24, 2019, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355967?p=1
McDermott, B., Berry, H., & Cobham, V. (2012). Social connectedness: A potential aetiological factor in the development of child post-traumatic stress disorder. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 46(2), 109–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867411433950
Moksnes, U. K., Espnes, G. A., & Haugan, G. (2014). Stress, Sense of Coherence and Emotional Symptoms in Adolescents. Psychology and Health, 29(1), 32–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2013.822868
Mueser, K. T., & Taub, J. (2008). Trauma and PTSD Among Adolescents With Severe Emotional Disorders Involved in Multiple Service Systems. Psychiatric Services, 59(6), 627–634. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2008.59.6.627
Naeem, F., Ayub, M., Masood, K., Gul, H., Khalid, M., Farrukh, A., … Rasheed, H. (2011). Prevalence and Psychosocial Risk Factors of PTSD : 18 months After Kashmir Earthquake in Pakistan. Journal of Affective Disorders, 130(1–2), 268–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.10.035
National Child Traumatic Stress Network [NCTSN]. (2009). Linking Trauma & Substance Abuse: Understanding Traumatic Stress In Adolescents. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 11–21. Retrieved from https://www.nctsn.org
National Health and Medical Research Council [NHMRC]. (2013). Acute Stress Disorder & Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Australian Guidelines. Melbourne, Victoria: Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health. Retrieved from www.acpmh.unimelb.edu.au
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence [NICE]. (2018). NICE Guideline: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Retrieved March 3, 2019, from nice.org.uk/guidance/ng116
NCPTSD. (2000). Using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-IV (PCL). Retrieved March 3, 2019, from http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment
Neugebauer, R., Fisher, P. W., Turner, J. B., Yamabe, S., Sarsfield, J. A., & Stehling-Ariza, T. (2009). Post-Traumatic Stress Reactions Among Rwandan Children and Adolescents in the Early Aftermath of Genocide. International Journal of Epidemiology, 38(4), 1033–1045. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyn375
NIMH. (2016). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Retrieved March 3, 2019, from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml
Nisha, C., Kiran, P., & Joseph, B. (2014). Assessment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Among Disaster Affected Children in a High School in Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand, India. International Journal of Health System and Disaster Management, 2(4), 237–240. https://doi.org/10.4103/2347-9019.144411
Nooner, K. B., Linares, L. O., Batinjane, J., Kramer, R. A., Silva, R., & Cloitre, M. (2012). Factors Related to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Adolescence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 13(3), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838012447698
Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., Byrne, C. M., Diaz, E., Watson, P. J., & Kaniasty, K. (2003). 60,000 Disaster Victims Speak: Part I. An Empirical Review of the Empirical Literature, 1981–2001. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 65(3), 207–239. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.65.3.207.20173
Notoatmodjo, S. (2012). Metodologi Penelitian Kesehatan. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
Nursalam. (2008). Konsep dan Penerapan Metodologi Penelitian Ilmu Keperawatan Pedoman Skripsi, Tesis dan Instrumen Penelitian Keperawatan (1st ed.). Jakarta: Salemba Medika.
Parwulan, D. (2010). Gambaran Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Pasca Gempa pada Anak Usia 7-14 Tahun di Dusun Sidamukti. Universitas Padjadjaran.
Persatuan Perawat Nasional Indonesia [PPNI]. (2018). Peran Perawat Persigana. Retrieved March 3, 2019, from https://ppni-inna.org/index.php/public_eng/information/news-detail/425
Pratiwi, C. A., Karini, S. M., & Agustin, R. W. (2010). Perbedaan Tingkat Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Ditinjau dari Bentuk Dukungan Emosi pada Penyintas Erupsi Merapi Usia Remaja dan Dewasa di Sleman, Yogyakarta. Jurnal Psikologi Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta.
Prawitasari, J. E. (2012). Psikologi Terapan: Melintas Batas Disiplin Ilmu. Jakarta: Penerbit Erlangga.
Rahmadian, A. A., Furqon, L.N., S. Y., Rusmana, N., & Downs, L. L. (2016). Prevalensi PTSD dan Karakteristik Gejala Stres Pascatrauma pada Anak dan Remaja Korban Bencana Alam. Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan Dan Pengajaran, 3(1), 1–17. Retrieved from https://www.perpustakaan.upi.ac.id
Rasmussen, D. J., Karsberg, S., Karstoft, K.-I., & Elklit, A. (2013). Victimization and PTSD in an Indian Youth Sample from Pune City. Open Journal of Epidemiology, 3(1), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojepi.2013.31003
Raudzah, S., Elklit, A., Vincent, R., Sultan, M. A., & Kana, K. (2014). Preliminary Findings on Lifetime Trauma Prevalence and PTSD Symptoms Among Adolescents in Sarawak Malaysia. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 11(2014), 45–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2014.05.008
Read, J. P., Ouimette, P., White, J., & Farrow, S. (2011). Rates of DSM–IV–TR Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among Newly Matriculated College Students. Psychol Trauma, 3(2), 148–156. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021260.Rates
Reed, P. L., Anthony, J. C., & Breslau, N. (2007). Incidence of Drug Problems in Young Adults Exposed to Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(12), 1435–1442. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.12.1435
Retnowati, S. (2012). Intervensi Psikososial saat Bencana.
Ross, R., Foa, E. B., Davidson, J. R. T., & Frances, A. (1999). Expert Consensus Treatment Guidelines For Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Guide for Patients and Families. Journal Clinical Psychiatri, 60(suppl 11), 1–8. Retrieved from http://www.moodtreatmentcenter.com/ptsd.pdf
Sadock, B. J., & Sadock, V. A. (2010). Buku Ajar Psikiatri Klinis: Kaplan & Sadock (2th ed.). Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kedokteran EGC.
Sayed, S., Iacoviello, B. M., & Charney, D. S. (2015). Risk Factors for the Development of Psychopathology Following Trauma. Current Psychiatry Reports, 17(8), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0612-y
Schiraldi, G. R. (2009). The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: a guide to healing, recovery, and growth (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Soesilo, A. (2012). Efek Neuropsikologis Stress Atas Otak (pp. 1–31). Semarang: Seminar dan Diskusi Ilmiah Psikologi Kesehatan.
Steinberg, L. (2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Developmental Review, 28(1), 78–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002
Sugiyono. (2010). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitatif dan R&D. Bandung: CV. Alfabeta.
Taft, C. T., Creech, S. K., & Kachadourian, L. (2012). Assessment and Treatment of Posttraumatic Anger and Aggression: A review. The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 49(5), 777. https://doi.org/10.1682/JRRD.2011.09.0156
The Management of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Work Group. (2017). The Management of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Work Group (2017) VA/DOD clinical practice guideline for the management of posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder. (3th ed.). Department of Veterans, Affairs Department of Defense. Department of Veterans Affairs and Department of Defense. Retrieved from http://www.healthquality.va.gov/ptsd/ptsd_full.pdf
Tian, Y., Wong, T. K., Li, J., & Jiang, X. (2014). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Its Risk Factors Among Adolescent Survivors Three Years After an 8.0 Magnitude Earthquake in China. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 1073. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-1073
Trickey, D., Siddaway, A. P., Meiser-Stedman, R., Serpell, L., & Field, A. P. (2012). A meta-analysis of risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(2), 122–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CPR.2011.12.001
Undang-Undang Nomor 24. (2007).
Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1993). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, Validity, and Diagnostic Utility. San Antonio, TX: Paper presented at the 9th Annual Conference of the ISTSS. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313709159_PTSD_Checklist_Reliability_validity_and_diagnostic_utility
Weems, C. F., Scott, B. G., Taylor, L. K., Cannon, M. F., Romano, D. M., & Perry, A. M. (2013). A Theoretical Model of Continuity in Anxiety and Links to Academic Achievement in Disaster-Exposed School Children, 25, 729–737. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000138
Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale-Revised, Assesing Psychological Trauma and PTSD In. New York : Guilford Press, 399–411.
WHO. (2003). Adolescent health. Retrieved March 3, 2019, from https://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/adolescence/en/
Wong, D. L., M. Wilson, D., Winkelstein, M. L., & Schwartz, P. (2008). Buku Ajar Keperawatan Pediatrik. Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kedokteran EGC.
World Health Organization [WHO]. (2002). Disasters & Emergencies Definitions. WHO/EHA Training package. Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdf
Yavuzer, Y., Karatas, Z., Civilidag, A., & Gundogdu, R. (2014). The Role of Peer Pressure, Automatic Thoughts and Self-Esteem on Adolescents’ Aggression. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, (54), 61–78. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1057533.pdf
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.