The Risk-Need-Responsivity Model on Inmate Rehabilitation: A Lesson from Nigeria

The article examines the nature, causes, and implications of inmate rehabilitation in Nigeria by explaining the Risk-Need-Responsivity model. The study reviewed secondary qualitative data, mostly a literature review, and it reinforced and added to the existing body of knowledge on inmate rehabilitation worldwide, particularly in Nigeria. The article finds that there are causes of congestion in the custodial center, such as overuse of imprisonment, a slow judicial process, insufficient prison capacity, a lack of adequate police investigation and prosecution, resource and operational efficiency, and a delay in the administration of justice. The paper adopts Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) theory to outline the process of the significance of rehabilitation towards inmates. The model emphasizes assessing and treating inmates according to their ability and risk of re-offending. The research applied a case study that examined the causes of custodial center congestion and identified the implications on inmate rehabilitation in Nigeria. The paper revealed that the consequences of custodial center congestion are spreading infectious disease, breakdown of social control, poor custodial center conditions, access to rehabilitation programs, and too much cost to the State. The study also explained various correctional facilities provide rehabilitation programs based on the criminogenic needs of the inmate, such as counseling programs, adult education, vocational programs, sports and leisure activities, and religious activities.


I. INTRODUCTION
Congestion in detention centers is a global issue that provides a severe economic, emotional, and social burden to convicted inmates and society at large. 1 Congestion in detention centers has become a significant issue.It is, nevertheless, a perplexing phenomenon with which both international and national stakeholders have grappled for decades.Congestion in correctional institutions has been an issue for contemporary correctional institutions since their establishment in the eighteenth century 2 .The number of people in correctional centers worldwide is growing, putting enormous financial pressure on governments and threatening social cohesion. 3round the world, there are over eleven million prisoners, and thirty-one million people are thought to enter correctional facilities and other detention centers annually.According to the 2018 World Prison Report, the world's population is just over 7.38 billion people; this means the world's prison population is around 145 per 100,000.The United States, Russia, China, and Brazil account for most prisoners.Populations differ significantly from location to place, from region to nation, from one nation to another, and from one continent to another. 4n African prisons, the level of overcrowding is greater; the occupancy rate is above 150 percent in 41% (16/39), implying that at least two convicts are housed in a space designed for one.These countries include Kenya, Mali, Rwanda, Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Benin, Burundi, Côte d'Ivoire, and Nigeria. 5Apart from chronic congestion, There has been a substantial increase in the number of people incarcerated in various African nations, leading to capacity issues.For the year 2018, South Africa reported 158,111 detainees.More than half of these people are on remand because they cannot afford bail or a fine of less than 1,000 Rand (102€).Nearly 45,000 inmates are imprisoned in Tanzanian correctional facilities, with a capacity of 22,669 inmates.This data indicates that prisons are more than 100 percent overcrowded. 6igeria's detention facilities are overburdened.Official data reveal that as of September 1, 2021, Nigerian correctional institutions housed 72,277 individuals, with 23,048 (31.9%) condemned convicts.The remaining 49,229 (68.1%) were convicts awaiting trial.As of December 2019, the Nigerian correctional service had 72,225 total 1 Amali, S. E., Barkuizen, J., and Petrus, T.An appraisal of offender rehabilitation programmes in North Western Nigeria.Acta criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology 30, no 4, (2017)  159-176. 2 García-Guerrero, J., and Marco, A. Overcrowding in prisons and its impact on health.Revista Española de Sanidad Penitenciaria, 14 no 3, (2012).Joseph,O. E.,Femi,A. F.,Ogadimma,A.,Bamidele,R.,Oluwakemisola,O.,Akintoyese,O. I.,and Jide Joseph,O.Prison overcrowding trend in Nigeria and policy implications on health.Cogent Social Sciences 7, no. 1 (12 August 2021):1-11. 4Walmsley, R. World Prison Population List (twelfth edition).Institute for Criminal Policy Research, 12, (2018) 1-19.www.prisonstudies.org 5Ulo Edefe.The metamorphosis from the Nigeria prison service to Nigeria correctional service: its implications and way forward.International journal of management, social sciences, peace and conflict studies 2, no 3. (2019). 6World Prison Brief, (2018).detainees, 22,186 (31%) of whom had been convicted, while 50,039 (69%) were awaiting trial.As of September 1, 2021, correctional facilities had 68,556 prisoners, with 17,951 (26%) convicted inmates and 50,605 (74%) awaiting trial.This reality demonstrates that the number of convicts imprisoned in 2019 has decreased from 2018 to 2021. 7he article aims to outline the scope of custodial center congestion, examine the causes of custodial center congestion, and identify the implications on inmate rehabilitation in Nigeria.The article clarified the meaning of the terms "inmate," "custodial center," and "rehabilitation."Discuss the nature of custodial center congestion, mainly how it causes and its implications to society.It explains how inmates are rehabilitated in Nigerian correctional facilities and the rehabilitation programs provided during the course.It outlines the obstacles that inmates in Nigeria face when attempting to be rehabilitated.Lastly, the risk-responsive model (RNR) was used to explain the core aim of the paper.

II. THE NATURE OF CUSTODIAL CENTER CONGESTION IN NIGERIA
An inmate is a person who is taken away from society and locked up in a custodial center against their will.This concept can be accomplished through incarceration, confinement, physical constraint, or captivity.The word refers to someone serving a prison sentence in a custodial facility; an inmate can be convicted or awaiting trial.An individual is known as a "convicted prisoner" if a court of Law has proven them committed a crime.Individuals detained in a correctional facility awaiting trial are known as awaiting trial inmates.Inmates awaiting trial are legally held, but the correctional center has not received a conviction letter.
On the other hand, the inmate concept should align with the ideal custodial center, a set of organizational initiatives that confine, care for, and occasionally punish persons who have committed or are highly suspected of having perpetrated a crime.A correctional center is a special place where inmates are detained to serve their imprisonment term and a place to hold people yet to be sentenced.The purpose of being detained in a detention facility is Rehabilitation, not punishment.The only kind of sufficient punishment is confinement, which involves being denied access to many things, including sexual relationships, privacy, freedom of movement, uninterrupted control over one's property, and various other pleasures.
According to the laws, a custodial center is a location designated and recognized by the Law of the country; it was established to ensure total lock-up of inmates who have been going against the Law of the country.Refers to the methods, processes, and programs undertaken while incarcerated to prepare for release.It also refers to inside and outside prison programs and structures intended to prepare and support offenders as they return to society.This idea affirms that the prison system should offer rehabilitation programs from detention to release to lessen the detrimental impacts of imprisonment by providing all necessary services and programs. 8ongestion may not always result from a country's high incarceration rate, and vice versa; a Minimal incarceration level may not necessarily mean that correctional facilities are uncongested.Instead, the room or cell provided in the custodial center is insufficient to accommodate the number of inmates sent to serve as convicts or awaiting trial. 9Recent studies show that nearly all Nigerian correctional establishments are congested; as a result, in 2016, Kano Correctional Institution held 4183 inmates despite having a capacity of 2116.This data indicates that some prisons in Nigeria have an excess occupancy rate.The inmates' living conditions are getting worse; they battle for room to sleep on the floor; they fight to avoid being despondent and becoming victims of violence. 10In 2016, the Kaduna correctional prison could detain 2832 convicts but only had 2871.This situation undoubtedly causes congestion, which is unfavorable to convicts' reformation and Rehabilitation from a medical, social, or psychological standpoint. 11However, Umuahia jail has an original capacity of 500 inmates cells, which houses 755 inmates and is congested. 12he National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2021) stated that Lagos state has the most significant inmate population.The State has 7,396 inmates compared to a jail capacity 3,927, closely followed by Rivers State with 4,424 and Kano with 4183.In contrast, Ekiti and Bayelsa states had the smallest jail populations, with 444 and 585 inmates, respectively, compared to prison capacities of 200 and 400.In 2016, the country's total jail population was 68,686, up from 65,033 in 2015.Compared to the entire prison population in 2015, the rise in inmate population in 2016 indicates a 5.62 percent increase. 13 study conducted by Chukwunonso and Laeticia 14 on reformation policies in the Nigerian prison system found that the reason that necessitates Nigerian prison reform includes making inmates better people when they return to society-rehabilitating correctional inmates to develop new skills and enhance their lives after release while isolating offenders from society until they have repented for their transgressions.A study in the Nigeria region of the Niger Delta on the welfare and impact of pr overcrowding indicated that most of those confined had learned at least one skill.They also noted that the library facilities, the most readily available social services given by the corrections system, are inoperable.Furthermore, most said they merely receive one meal daily while the football pitch is the only recreational facility available.They also stated that most of them participated in industrial training; counseling is the day-to-day program for the inmates. 15kiwe et al. 16 researched the conditions and levels of congestion among correctional services in Nigeria's Niger Delta area.The study's findings revealed that the selected prisons are overcrowded in terms of capacity compared to their actual capacity.The analysis clearly shows that correctional conditions are inadequate and that there has been no recent improvement in these facilities among the chosen prisons.The analysis discovered that the prison's facilities are insufficient and that there are no cohesive, comprehensive planning processes for creating new facilities or the prison's expansion.
Joseph et al. 17 study on Nigerian prison congestion trends and health effects of policies.The study found that overcrowding in Nigerian prisons was ascribed to a severe policy failure in the execution of the increase in jail capacity syndrome, according to the report.Despite having a lower population and jail capacity than Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria accounts for 55% of the prison population as of 2016.Furthermore, as of 2016, Northern Nigerian prisons were 3% overcrowded, whereas Southern Nigerian prisons were 81% overcrowded.As a result, it is in the government's best interests to establish policies that expand prison capacity depending on the crime rate in each geopolitical zone.

III. FACT ON CUSTODIAL CENTER CONGESTION
In general prisons, congestion occurs once the number of prisoners exceeds the prison's capacity to the point where inmates cannot be accommodated in a humane, healthy, or psychologically appropriate manner.Congestion is the term used in Nigeria to describe overcrowding.It poses a significant issue within and outside the facilities regarding environmental sanitation and fresh, hygienic air in Nigerian cities. Prison congestion stems from the judicial system locking up more individuals than the prisons can accommodate for extended periods. 18Some causes of custodial center congestion in Nigeria are cited in Amuche (2020) and relate to the responsibility of Nigerian police personnel to prevent, control, and identify criminal activity.
Suppose police do duties successfully and efficiently in pursuing crimes and prosecuting the criminals according to their actions.The rate of incarceration will decrease, and prisons will be greatly decongested.However, if they fail to curb crime, they may result in congestion in prisons.The court proceeding cannot commence until the investigation police officer (IPO) has completed their investigation and the accused person has been arraigned.The court's ability to try the case is hampered by the police's inability to conclude the investigation in one way or the other.As a result, the prosecutor is obligated to request an adjournment, and when the request is made and granted, the accused individual is almost always remanded in prison custody for awaiting trial.
Judges and magistrates usually implement the punitive approach to penalize offenders even if the offense is minor.They impose custodial sentences or heavy penalties the accused cannot afford, and as a result, many offenders wind up in prison.Most inmates in the Nigerian custodial center are kept awaiting trial based on this policy by the majority of the judges and magistrates and also difficulty in the bail system by the judges and magistrates in Nigeria to grant bail to inmates, especially for the bailable offenses.
It is common knowledge that the general public does not accept ex-convicts.They tend to isolate them and doom them to a criminal life.Due to this circumstance, they become aware of the harsh realities of life outside the prison walls.Their desire to return to jail grows overpowering, driving them to commit additional crimes, which is the key to the prison gate.
Over-Criminalization of the Society on the worldwide crime rate is at an all-time high, and Nigeria is no exception.The over-criminalization of society may be traced back to social, cultural, religious, political, and economic development. 19The economic downturn, which has resulted in layoffs and unemployment, has twisted people's attitudes about law-abiding behavior and driven them to commit minor crimes: Thuggery and other political offenses, both violent and non-violent, are born by the political opposition that leads to a craving for dominance at any costs.Religious bigotry also breeds strife and turmoil, leading to the final incarceration of all individuals involved.
The prison accommodations in Nigeria cannot contain the growing capacity of convicted inmates and awaiting trial inmates by our criminal justice system agencies.The government's failure to provide adequate funds for expansion and renovation or building new prison facilities, the rapid increases in accommodating too many criminals, delays in the police investigation, and unexpected people being kept for awaiting trial remand, the corrections agency's failure to strategies and forecast for future increase in capacity of the inmates have all contributed to Nigeria's correctional center congestions.
Custodial Center congestion severely affects inmates, custodial officers, and society.It is a significant factor in the failure of correctional services because of its numerous implications, including a lack of proper and intensive feeding, lack of funding, bedding, clothes, good discipline, supervision, and unsanitary living conditions. 20owever, because of the potential of convicts to mingle with different offenders owing to overcrowding, detention center congestion exacerbates the high prevalence of crime in society.
As a result, Nigerian prisons share a few characteristics: congestion, filth, and insufficient medical and Rehabilitation facilities.As a result, many inmates become ill and die before being tried. 21Ronke 22 claims that prison overcrowding and more significant abuse can induce stress in inmates and personnel, contributing to physical and mental disorders.Furthermore, most offenders do not work or have access to rehabilitative services.When institutions are overcrowded, transporting convicts to and from program places becomes difficult.
In Nigeria, prison overcrowding promotes the spread of contagious illnesses like TB, chickenpox, etc.In prison, inmates are more susceptible to blood-borne infections, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), communicable diseases, infection with airborne organisms, and coronavirus (COVID-19).Without proper treatment and medications, HIV, viral hepatitis, STIs, tuberculosis, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, cancer, and chronic Asthma are all more common among convicts.A deficient procedure must be followed while referring the inmate to a general or specialist hospital within the domain. 23risons are congested, making it difficult to maintain control over the inmates.Congestion in prisons results in increased cell temperatures and noise levels, lower cell ventilation, idleness, dispute, and irritability within the facility.This fact can negatively affect how convicts and staff interact and raise the possibility of conflict among the prisoners.Breaking of social control is caused by overcrowding, overcrowding cause violence, while violence cause rape, and rape spread sexual transmission disease (STD). 24rison facilities have deteriorated as a result of congestion.Inmates' access to personal living space is minimal.Others always surround inmates, and they sleep with the awareness that they could be molested or assaulted at any time by their fellow inmates.They must urinate and defecate in public without being screened.Because of this, creating an environment conducive to preparing someone for life outside of prison is practically impossible.The burden on resources is immense, and it is impossible to expect good citizens to emerge from a setting that cannot meet the basic needs of detainees.
When custodial institutions are overcrowded, offenders who are meant to engage in rehabilitation programs cannot do so, and transportation of convicts to rehabilitation facilities frequently becomes an issue when required.Some rehabilitation facilities are also obsolete or unusable.Those who wish to study in prison to continue their Education may be unable to do so.Even if they have the opportunity, they may not have the mental peace to study. 25Another consequence of congestion in the custodial center is the financial burden that the nation must endure.Because there is an increase in inmate incarceration, the correctional service budget will have to be increased.This situation means that the government will have to divert money from other areas of the economy to correctional service.The cost of imprisonment to governments and society is significantly greater than the actual authorized budget, and it may be applied practically anywhere.26

IV. CORRECTIONAL FACILITIES IN NIGERIA: REHABILITATION OF OFFENDERS
Rehabilitation includes reintegrating the offender into society.It includes restoring him socially, monetarily, occupationally, emotionally, and intellectually to his maximum usefulness. 27It begins when the accused is found guilty and goes into Rehabilitation until the accused is released from prison and reintegrates into society as their original self.
Only use jail time to ensure that a criminal is ready to live a lawful life when released back into society.A prisoner's future is considered as soon as he is found guilty.The jail utilizes every available rehabilitative, educational, mental, religious, and other assistance.Following up on every offender released from prison is essential to ensure he does not engage in criminal activities. 28owever, Rehabilitation in the context of a correctional facility involves "returning the criminal to a regular way of life."The intentional alteration of a convicted offender's traits, behaviors, and actions through rehabilitative or educational programs to ensure the released inmate is accepted into the community as a respected individual.
Alamu & Makinde29 stated that criminals are handled with love rather than punishment in Rehabilitation.It can also be explained as making a convict societally and personally beneficial at large by imparting important information and understanding in him or her that will allow the criminal to reestablish social functioning after being released from prison.
Another viewpoint is that Rehabilitation is regaining one's former talents, which may also be possible with the assistance of correctional personnel. 30In this regard, Kayode 31 argues that when an inmate has been provided the necessary abilities, Education, and tools needed to function in society legitimately, which can be achieved, or when their social and ethical standards have been raised to a point where they can withstand social pressure to avoid going back to prison, Rehabilitation has been successful.In another way, correctional officials are in an excellent position to help prisoners reintegrate and positively impact themselves and society.Individuals, on the other hand, engage in deviant behavior in reaction to system stress and strain, even though Rehabilitation's primary goal is to encourage individuals to re-enter the system, therefore maintaining it. 32hus, scholars like Joseph 33 make an example that theft can lead to the conduct of other illegal acts.If an offender is denied the chance for Rehabilitation, which may include skills training and capacity development, he or she will become a difficult-tofind opponent in the broader community that jailed him or her.Rehabilitation may result in a criminal being reintroduced into the system, which may have been created by delinquent behavior in the first place and may epitomize dysfunctional thinking. 34As a result, Rehabilitation necessitates the employment of inflectional activities, which are frequently aimed at behavior redirection.
Finally, rehabilitation efforts in Nigerian detention institutions are grossly inadequate.While the correctional service has done an excellent job in its custodial role, it has not been successful in its rehabilitation efforts.In most detention prisons, vocational facilities for rehabilitating inmates do not exist, and when they do, they are the product of cooperative gestures and welfare empowerment initiatives by dedicated human rights groups.Correctional institutions in their current State are utterly incapable of reforming or rehabilitating anyone.
The Nigerian government has always emphasized the role of restoration services in developing and transforming inmates. 35The Nigerian Correctional Service Act of 2019 states that people desiring to improve themselves while facing incarceration would have enough opportunities to participate in various rehabilitation programs.Furthermore, Ali 36 asserted that Rehabilitation is an activity to mold a convicted person to become a helpful person in the community by establishing his/her fundamental intellect, which would aid the offender in regaining social functioning once released.For meaningful reintegration and Rehabilitation to occur in a correctional facility, rehabilitation services should be enhanced and sufficient provisions made accessible to prisoners.Workshops for skill acquisition, for example, were developed to teach inmates shoemaking, printing, carpentry, and tailoring. 37owever, to achieve the goal mentioned earlier, Rehabilitation should equip an offender with the knowledge, ability, and skills necessary for reintegration into society.Nigerian Correctional Service (NCoS) is one of the elements of the criminal justice reform program in Nigeria; this is thought to be in line with the global trend of changing the services provided by correctional facilities.This reality reflects a change from a punitive and vengeful jail system to a reformatory and rehabilitative system that puts the welfare of criminals first.
Vocational programs provide trade training, often providing inmates with job experience to prepare for their future employment.Inmates convicted of a crime may be adept at carpentry, painting, upholstery, and computer programming.Productivity program was developed in Nigerian correctional centers as a skill training effort to train inmates in agricultural operations such as Cottage industries, rearing, and poultry farms.Furthermore, teach them how to produce soap, furniture, and aluminum pots through automated fabrication, toilet paper, and welding. 38on-governmental organizations (NGOs) are essential in reform and restoration efforts by providing vocational training programs and industrial skills that reduce jail overcrowding.Some offenders favor one program or activity of Rehabilitation over another.This idea might be due to a personal interest or the program's simplicity. 39riminals who choose Rehabilitation develop skills that will help them find opportunities and a career when freed.Nigerian correctional centers provided occupational training for inmates, particularly those who did not have stable jobs before their incarceration.Some programs, like Education and moral persuasion, aim to stop convicted offenders from committing crimes again.According to the rehabilitation idea, offenders are kept in prisons until prison authorities believe they have been properly rehabilitated. 40eligious ministries that encourage character development are present in Nigerian correctional facilities; for prisoners' physical and religious well-being, churches and mosque bodies provide individual and group treatment for reintegration, attitude, and behavior improvement. 41Prisoners will be provided Education for the future by implementing religious rehabilitation programs in correctional centers.This program is accomplished by providing inmates with practical experience that will enable them to live self-satisfying lives once they are released.The issue in Nigerian correctional facilities may obstruct successful convict rehabilitation, providing them with a better life after incarceration.

V. CHALLENGES MILITATING AGAINST NIGERIA CORRECTIONAL CENTRES FOR THE REHABILITATION OF OFFENDERS
The Nigerian correctional service is following the worldwide trend of moving away from a punishment and retributive criminal system and toward a rehabilitative one.Furthermore, the custodial center's fundamental responsibility is to teach and rehabilitate convicted offenders, but its principal mission has been to assure the safe and secure confinement of suspects awaiting trial; however, no rehabilitations have taken place in the Nigerian custodial center yet.The following are some of the obstacles to inmate rehabilitation.According to available statistics, Nigerian correctional facilities have a significant lack of cell rooms, which impedes inmate rehabilitation.For example, as of October 19, 2017, the Lagos correctional facility, which had been designed to house 3,927 convicts, had 7,396 inmates, while the Rivers correctional facility had 4,424 inmates instead of the 1,354 it had been designed to hold, accommodating greater than 100% of its initial capacity.According to statistics, about 45,000 Nigerians are now jailed in the country's various detention institutions.This figure is roughly 20,000 people more than the jail can hold.The Kano Custodial Center, for example, is congested, with few opportunities for counseling and instruction that may help a man avoid committing a crime.The enormous number of individuals pending trial is the most significant factor contributing to jail overcrowding. 42he majority of prisons are overcrowded beyond their intended capacity.Ikoyi Correctional Center in Lagos is one such; it was designed to house 800 convicts but now holds more than 1200.As a result of the continued high levels of congestion, up to 150% 40 Onyekachi, J. Problems and prospects of administration of Nigerian prison: Need for proper rehabilitation of the inmates in Nigeria prisons.Journal of Tourism & Hospitality, 5 no. 4 (2016), 1-14. 41Ayade, Problem of prison overcrowding in Nigeria: some lessons from South Africa and America.Central European University legal studies department in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of llm, human rights.(2010). 42Nigeria bureau of statistic report NBS (2020) of inmates have become sick and even died.Due to the inadequate facilities that crowded correctional centers overstretch, congestion creates unsafe environments that will inevitably result in violence, breaches, insurrections, and attacks. 43 recent examination of prisons revealed that a shortage of funding has made maintaining inmates and providing amenities all but impossible, while programs for prisoner rehabilitation, the primary justification for incarceration, are either wholly absent or woefully insufficient.It is pretty challenging to be rehabilitated in this situation since the daily meal charge for each prisoner was reduced from N150 to N70, resulting in reduced food rations and poor food quality. 44Due to low remuneration, several Correctional officers have resorted to unethical methods to supplement their monthly income.Officers may be corrupt due to the difficulties they face in their jobs.The officers are grossly underpaid and untrained, with no profitable employee incentives on top of working long days.To get basic requirements such as meals, clothing, and shelter, unscrupulous correctional officers resort to extortion from convicts.In addition, most Nigerian prisons lack proper equipment and sufficient salaries for their officers. 45odern Nigerian prisons have endured as reminders of the colonial past, but serious reforms are needed to protect inmates' health in Nigeria.This problem is especially true given the rapidly deteriorating conditions in the country's prisons.Because few drugs are available in prisons, inmates must collect money outside the prison yard to purchase more medications. 46This fact reveals that Nigerian prisons lack adequate medical facilities.Unfortunately, despite having clinics in Nigerian detention institutions since 1971, they are understaffed, and most staff members and their particular wards use the clinics' sparse amenities. 47he available facilities are not well-maintained, and as a result, many rehabilitative facilities, like those in penal institutions, are no longer in use because they are broken and there is no money to fix them.For instance, sewing machines, welding machines, and construction equipment.are no longer used.The bulk of the current prison communities in Nigeria were constructed between 70 and 80 years ago, lacking essential amenities like schools and technical workshops.Rehabilitating inmates in Nigeria is nearly impossible due to the country's obsolete and overburdened infrastructure and a lack of new correctional facilities to be constructed in all the geopolitical zones in the country to ease and reduce the overpopulation of the inmates. 48he welfare section is in charge of ensuring effective management of the staff and convicts, mainly via the creation of events and activities related to various rehabilitative and socializing programs for the inmates' guidance and counseling, reformation, Rehabilitation, and reintegration back into society.However, they have failed since the majority of the members of this unit are amateurs and occasionally are unable to do the tasks that are required of them.An understanding of penal theory, methods, processes, and practices regarding the well-being of officers and inmates is required for the welfare officer position.Inadequate retraining programs for correctional officers may obstruct effective inmate rehabilitation.Furthermore, if correctional officers are not sufficiently prepared to cope with various types of inmates, they are more likely to experience jobrelated stress and tiredness; this may be a factor in low work performance, while the acts of inmates against correctional officers contribute to increased emotional fatigue. 49he international world is concerned that inmates' rights are frequently violated in Nigerian prisons.Solomon et al. 50 argue that a sluggish legal system in the nation has led to a terrible scenario verging on human rights abuses.The Nigerian correctional facility must complete some obligations, and the provision of welfare services available in all Nigerian correctional facilities is insufficient, contrary to the minimal standards for the care of prisoners.This data implies that the NCoS violates the convicts' rights and freedoms.51As a reformatory home, the prison is expected to include all the amenities needed to ensure that inmates get successful Rehabilitation.However, due to a high frequency of overcrowding spurred on by the significant number of offenders awaiting trial, Nigeria's jails are in disarray.
Inmates' welfare being imprisoned conflicts with their inalienable rights.One or more significant medical conditions must be treated, disease prevention information must be lacking, conjugal visits must be prohibited, and access to Education must be denied.These are only a few of the critical infractions.To this extent, correspondence is edited, visitation rights are strictly monitored, and most prisoners endure cruel treatment against the Law.
In most Nigerian prisons, there are not enough beds, so prisoners must share mattresses or sleep on the floor, putting them in danger.In addition, the environment inside most prisons is dirty, with inadequate aeration and sanitary conditions.Because of this, Correctional facilities, according to some scholars, are "human cages" with no establishments for corrections. 52According to Salaam,53 Other problems include clogged and leaking toilets, which can aid in spreading many diseases; prisoners must urinate in buckets within their cell rooms because most of the cells are not equipped with bathrooms.To avoid being placed in such a cell, a new criminal must tip the correctional facility staff to ensure they are allocated to a more excellent cell.Those prisoners who have gotten preferential care are the privileged ones. 54nufactured problems are the issues faced in most Nigerian correctional centers, primarily the result of actions taken by institutions involved in the criminal justice process.Salaam 55 claims that the creation of prison facilities in the country was done so that individuals who had been adequately imprisoned would be protected and receive the necessary therapy and Rehabilitation to help them reintegrate into society.It is possible to conclude that the goals mentioned earlier can prevent criminals from reoffending, but it is doubtful whether Nigerian correctional services succeed, given their overburdened facilities and appalling living conditions for prisoners.

VI. LEARN FROM NIGERIA: THE RISK-NEED-RESPONSIVITY (RNR) MODEL
Canadian scholars James Bonta, Paul Gendreau, and Don Andrews developed the RNR model of offender rehabilitation.The model is a crucial one for evaluating and rehabilitating criminals.Since its first definition in the 90s, the model is created and integrated into a more comprehensive theory of criminal behavior based on personality and cognitive social learning.This style of offender rehabilitation is, without a doubt, the best for offenders.It has ushered in a change in the way criminal behavior is dealt with in many countries like the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, all contributing to the development of several effective remedies that have been supported by science for a range of crimes.
In adjustments for creating risk and need assessment tools, the model has been the primary paradigm to explain the reformation and treatment of prisoners.The model principles generally embody the most significant regulatory principles for efficient correctional intervention.RNR identifies the who, what, and how of correctional interventions.Regarding risk assessment, by combining empirical evidence of the factors linked with future crime, the model has a proven track record of directing practical risk instruments with proof of the change factors that motivate recidivism reductions following program completion.In light of the above, Andrews and Bonta 56 Risk, need, 52 Ahire, P.T. (1990).The Nigerian prison system: A social history.Paper presented at the National Seminar on prison reform in Nigeria, Abuja.18-20Salaam, A.O. (2013).Locked up, but shouldn't be forgotten.Basic educational training and career placement as potential tools for the reintegration and rehabilitation of former prisoners in Nigeria.Journal of Offender Rehabilitation.52: 438-450. 54Amnesty International (2021). 55Salaam 440 56 Andrew, D.A. & Bonta, J. (2010a).Rehabilitating criminal justice policy and practice.Psychology, Public  and Law, 16: 35-55  and responsivity are the three guiding concepts for meaningful and successful corrections, and they will direct engagement with offenders' rehabilitations.
First, the principle states that more resources should be allocated to individuals with a high risk of offending while fewer resources should be allocated to those with a low risk.Determine whom to target and the level of interventions by determining the likelihood that the target would re-offend.Risk is the possibility that adverse outcomes may occur. 57In a nutshell, the risk principle states that criminals at higher risk for recidivism gain the most benefit from more extensive intervention, such as raising therapy, whereas offenders at lower risk will benefit the least from minimum, regular, or no intervention.
According to the RNR theoretical framework, successful offender rehabilitation necessitates a thorough categorization of the offenders' degree of risk and requirements.Furthermore, Our knowledge of re-offending risk factors has increased due to the risk analysis variables, criminogenic requirements for many criminals, and the available empirical knowledge for both the "Big Four" and the "Central Eight." 58Nonetheless, competent academics who work in criminal justice systems are occasionally called upon to assess the likelihood of recidivism.Moreover, Risk assessment is an undefined procedure that often uses tools for assessing the likelihood that a harmful event will occur within a given time frame.
Second is the principle asserted that The emphasis of the intervention ought to be the criminogenic requirements linked to decreased recidivism.According to Polaschek,59 Target change is a name for the need principle.Similar to how criminogenic demands are linked to recidivism in criminal inhabitants, according to experimental studies.According to the need principle, treatment should be altered to address the recidivist's criminogenic needs.Those factors can be revealed while evaluating the person's dynamic risk variables.The need principle determines the treatment focus by distinguishing between criminogenic and non-criminogenic demands.Criminogenic requirements are variables that predict changes in recidivism rates.In their empirical research, Andrews and Bontaidentify eight risk elements for developing and maintaining criminal conduct (the "Big/Central Eight") linked to criminals re-offending with connection to criminogenic requirements.These elements included: 57 Douglas, N. & Plugge, E. (2008).The health needs of imprisoned female juvenile offenders: The views of the young women prisoners and youth justice professionals.Andrew, D.A. & Bonta, J. (2010b).The psychology of criminal conduct (5th edition).Polaschek, D. L. (2012).An appraisal of the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model of offender rehabilitation and its application in correctional treatment.Legal and criminological Psychology, 17(1), 1-17.

i.
Early engagement in various antisocial behaviors and situations characterizes a history of antisocial conduct.When something is not there, it is considered a weakness.ii.
The Antisocial are known for their rash, daring, pleasure-seeking, aggressive, and callous disregard for other people's feelings.Evidence shows that the recidivism personality pattern and the degrees of dynamic risk variables are related.Concerns about poor self-control, controlling one's temper, and problem-solving skills are all connected.Therefore, enhancing these skills is one of the treatment's objectives.iii.
Antisocial cognition includes, among other things, ideals, attitudes, and a personality that supports criminal activity.iv.
The quality of connections and the effect of companions (e.g., favorable or unfavorable to crime) are essential in this situation, which characterizes antisocial acquaintances and total isolation from positive behavioral individuals.v. Challenging conditions in the household, parenting, nurturance/caring, and monitoring (family/ marital).vi.
Challenging conditions at working workplace or school vii.
only a few enjoyable recreational/sporting or leisure/fun activities.viii.
Drug/substance abuse Due to this, individual, interpersonal, and societal variables are included in the RNR Model's understanding of the acquisition and maintenance of criminal conduct. 60ndrews and Bonta61 go on to say that The focus of treatment should be criminogenic needs.Low self-esteem and personal anguish are examples of non-criminogenic demands seen as secondary and should not be the focus of therapy until they are related to the Responsivity Principle, the third principle of effective correctional treatment.
The responsivity concept states that individual traits, including learning style, motivation level, and interpersonal and personal circumstances, should be considered while designing correctional programs.It is sometimes called the "how" of intervention because it involves organizing by providing services that involve offenders, aid their learning, and encourage them to change.The first few principles-risk and need-are used to decide on the scope and objectives of therapy, and the complete set is applied to guide practice.Provide cognitive-behavioral therapy and customize the rehabilitative treatment to the offender's preferences, driving forces, skills, and capacities to maximize the offender's potential to learn from the intervention.
Respondent intervention refers to how engaging with criminals might encourage offenders to change their criminal behavior.Additionally, responsivity concerns how a person reacts to the therapeutic setting, considering several variables and situations.For instance, in this context, responsiveness refers to how convicts react to unusual treatment provided by the institution running the correctional center.Additionally, it refers to how well convicts cooperate with law enforcement.Another example of responsiveness is how the Nigerian penal system responds to the unique demands of the inmates, such as those related to Rehabilitation or criminogenic needs.
General and specific responsivity are the two components of the responsivity principle.According to the general responsivity model, effective treatments often rely on social, behavioral, and cognitive learning techniques to change behavior. 62Whatever the sort of offender, be it a man or a women, the most successful method involved is cognitive and social learning.Necessary corrective actions, such as positive behavioral modelling, the right application of supporters and critics, and problem-solving, define the specific skills displayed in a cognitive, social learning technique. 63 particular responsiveness has been utilized to optimize cognitive behavioral intervention.It considers a person's aptitudes, learning preferences, personality, drive, and bio-social factors.For instance, female offenders might not interact well with a program catering to men's preferences and needs of race and gender.It also implies that the therapy must be adapted to the specifics of the instances that make them likely to benefit from it and the criminogenic need, such as their circumstances and characteristics.The model's efficacy was assessed in one study by looking at its strengths and shortcomings. 64The strengths and causes for each strength were documented based on a set of standards already used in earlier empirical research: • Since the model was developed using psychological theories and data, it has unifying power and external consistency.This model implied that since it lacked a distinctive psychological theory, Freudian could be used with almost any other theory.• Explanatory depth since the model permits the numerous factors, such as antisocial attitudes, around which programs are constructed, to be considered in explaining efficacy.• It has empirical validity because it was based on previously collected data, and no new evidence from the last 20 years has refuted any of those conclusions.
• The paradigm is fruitful and practical since it offers countless chances for diversity and innovation and has even been used to create systems for program accreditation.The only way to thoroughly understand the model's intricacy is to read the book or more current explanations by other writers, as the Psychology of Criminal Behavior is the sole significant source of data.
• It has little "explanatory depth" since not all of the ideas on which it is based are fully established.• The approach focuses too little on dynamic components, or criminogenic needs, that are important for risk reduction.The impact of non-criminogenic demands on Rehabilitation is not given adequate consideration in the strategy.• The relevance of the responsivity principle in offender rehabilitation is marginalized by the shaky theoretical connection between its essential elements.
Despite these drawbacks, the author of the evaluation observes that, as long as it maintains a solid empirical base and scientific facts, this RNR model of Rehabilitation is bound to remain the dominant rehabilitation theory.The model's accomplishments are remarkable: It created and promoted a deceptively simple set of ideas to guide offenders through Rehabilitation; what works emerged from a sea of quackery, false information, and conflicting findings, cited in Polaschek. 65  The explanation of the risk principle model matches inmates' Rehabilitation to criminogenic risk factors.The Nigeria Correctional Service should conduct a risk/need assessment or analysis of the convicted inmates to determine the best rehabilitation strategies that apply to them.They will be able to determine the optimum rehabilitation option as a result.According to the model, discrepancies occur between the inmates' requirements and the reintegration processes.While the outcomes are unfavorable, additionally, the model emphasizes that correctional officers should measure an offender's likelihood of re-offending; as a result, it is unlikely that an inmate would commit any future crimes.

Methods in Rehabilitation of Inmates Using RNR Model
Correctional facilities should provide the highest-risk convicts with additional resources; it should be noted to this topic.Correctional facilities should focus their interventions on the unique risk factors of their inmates.This model means that criminals with a great risk of recidivism are more priorities, and those with a lower chance of recidivism have little attention towards Rehabilitation.When allocating resources, supervisory officers should consider dynamic need variables, which consider that more significant criminals require additional rigorous monitoring, unlike low-risk criminals.
According to research conducted in Europe, America, and Asia, correctional centers that can give reintegration or rehabilitation programs, counseling, and vocational services instead of using punishment were able to give speedy recovery to convicted inmates.Moreover, South Korean correctional institutions' priorities have recently shifted from outright abuse and punishment of offenders to reform and Rehabilitation.As a result, correctional officers went about their duty of supervising and instilling treatment programs for offenders.
Correctional facilities shifted their focus to inmate rehabilitation, even in Africa.Thus, counseling has been included in offender rehabilitation programs in various African prisons.Similarly, the Nigerian Correctional Service must offer inmates access to quality education, vocational/trade training, and training in contemporary farming and animal husbandry methods.To this end, each custodial facility established and operated an industrial center with cutting-edge facilities to enhance inmates' vocational skill training and ease their transition back into society as normal human beings. 66ndrew and Dowden 67 demonstrated the value of intervention and rehabilitation programs to prison inmates.Cullen and Gendreau 68 presented four pieces of research that compared offenders receiving correctional Rehabilitation to those receiving no such rehabilitation to evaluate the effectiveness of correctional Rehabilitation.In three research, it was discovered that criminals who received correctional Rehabilitation had decreased recidivism rates.Subsequent reviews also revealed more controlled assessments of correctional Rehabilitation, and these reviews similarly showed that, in around 50% to 60% of earlier research, the treatment was successful.There may be a decrease in recidivism if correctional facilities worldwide can start providing high and low-risk offenders with proper correctional treatment.This model illustrates the beneficial influence of rehabilitation programs on the criminal conduct of prisoners.

VII. CONCLUSION
The primary objective of correctional services across the world is Rehabilitation.The Nigerian correctional service has identified Rehabilitation as its primary goal in its act of 2020 as an amendment; however, the procedures or results gained in such facilities constantly cause controversy.In conclusion, various correctional facilities provide rehabilitation programs based on the criminogenic needs of the inmate, such as counseling programs, adult education, vocational programs, sports and leisure activities, and religious activities.Effective inmate rehabilitation gives room for a better life after release from the custodial center.
The provision of rehabilitation programs is still a crucial approach.Nigeria's correctional service should focus on providing sufficient inmate rehabilitation by focusing on the Risk-Need-Responsivity model to improve inmate rehabilitation.A nationwide strategy on convict rehabilitation that ensures uniform rehabilitation programs based on inmate characteristics should be implemented.It would help to prevent gaps in implementing rehabilitation facilities in Nigerian correctional centers.To avoid recidivism, correctional services should involve inmates in rehabilitation programs that benefit both the criminal and society instead of focusing on combating crime without effective inmate rehabilitation.To decrease the rising number of prison/jailbreaks throughout all Nigerian correctional facilities, the government should improve the funding, welfare, and services provided to correctional officers.Stakeholders, including the government, nongovernmental organizations, and people in society, must support rehabilitation programs for a peaceful and safe society and aftercare services for those released from prison to avoid recidivism.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to thank the literature authors mentioned in this study for their efforts, particularly Sadiq Amali, Ph.D., and Zakariyya Muhammad Sarki, Ph.D., for their generous help in bringing the paper to take shape.

FUNDING
None

Figure :
Figure: RNR model adaption from UNRISD by the author.